Algorithms underpinning these apps use data-driven matching processes that unfortunately reflect and reinforce social biases, privileging certain appearances, socioeconomic statuses and personality traits while marginalising others. “Algorithmic desirability”commodifies users and impacts their self-esteem whilst reshaping what is pursued in hookups and romantic relationships (Datta et al., 2015; Blackwell et al., 2015; Chopik et al., 2021). Studies indicate that algorithmic curation promotes quick, visually focused assessments encouraging casually timed hookups and ephemeral encounters whilst also facilitating more selective and strategic long-term dating behaviors (Ward, 2016; Timmermans & De Caluwé, 2017).

Within a neoliberal capitalist framework, there is an emphasis on quantity, variety and novelty, which leads individuals to seek constant stimulation over depth and meaningful connection. These material conditions produce alienation, where individuals mindlessly consume experiences in attempts to overcome unaddressed loneliness. This is visible in the way contemporary youth perceive sex and sexuality, with existing dating apps functioning as marketplaces where sexual partnerships are sought often without sufficient emotional engagement (Finkel et al., 2012; Garcia et al., 2012; Paché, 2025).

While technology expands opportunities for casual encounters, it also introduces relational ambivalence by enabling instant access with limited personal accountability, simultaneously enhancing intimacy via constant digital contact and depersonalising connection, encouraging behaviors such as ghosting and breadcrumbing, which complicate commitments (Lehmiller, 2018; Eshbaugh & Gute, 2008).

Karl Marx's theory of alienation 

Karl Marx’s theory of alienation (Cox, n.d.) suggests that capitalism creates a deep sense of separation and disconnection in people’s lives. Applying it to romantic relationships and hookups helps us see how capitalism influences intimacy. Relationships and hookups can feel like transactions or commodities when shaped by existing dating apps, social expectations and economic pressures rather than by true human connection and free expression of desire (Finkel et al., 2012). Partners may be treated like products to be chosen or rejected based on superficial traits like appearance or status. This reflects the commodification of desire and creates emotional alienation, where even our feelings and connections become objects controlled by external forces (Garcia et al., 2012), even as the same capitalistic system also presents opportunities for committed relationships. Forming and maintaining relationships involves significant emotional effort, what sociologists call "emotional labor," which includes managing feelings, giving care, showing support and navigating relationship ups and downs (Hochschild, 1983). This is where the capitalistic systems fall short. It’s impossible to neatly separate physical intimacy (like hookups) from emotional depth; physical acts carry emotional weight, risk and vulnerability, often involving careful and sometimes painful decision-making (Eshbaugh & Gute, 2008).

Desire for connection versus physical gratification

Motivations for pursuing romantic relationships often include a desire for emotional intimacy, companionship and long-term security, in addition to physical attraction (Sprecher & Regan, 2002). Romantic relationships serve to fulfill complex needs for belonging, affirmation and shared identity, making commitment and exclusivity central to many people’s relational goals. In contrast, hookups primarily emphasise immediate physical gratification and sexual exploration (Garcia et al., 2012; Paul & Hayes, 2002). This does not imply a lack of emotional complexity, but rather different weighting of emotional versus physical needs.

In contrast, for economically marginalised groups, relationships may be shaped by different constraints and survival strategies. For marginalised women facing migration, caste discrimination, gender inequality or economic hardship, physical closeness is not just about desire or pleasure; it involves social risks and complex negotiations. Cultural expectations and fears of judgment or harm often create increased caution in terms of when, how, and with whom intimacy is pursued. Sexual encounters become deeply negotiated, high-stakes aspects of survival and identity (Devi, 2024).

In a neoliberal urban context, the commodification of dating creates inequalities where wealthier individuals can afford to 'shop' for partners, whereas others face limited choices and social pressures that can turn intimacy into a transaction of necessity or strategy.

Gender norms

Greater sexual agency for women, especially among younger, urban populations, has expanded possibilities for pursuing hookups as legitimate expressions of autonomy (Bogle, 2008; Conley et al., 2013). The shift in women's exploration of multiple relationships is seen as empowerment rather than moral failing, challenging dominant sexual scripts. Men’s pursuit of hookups or romance is often socially encouraged, linked with masculinity norms valuing sexual conquest or protective partnership roles, yet increasingly complicated by changing expectations around emotional openness and equality (Connell, 1995).

Neuroscientific dimensions of intimacy and mating

Studying long term relationships has been one of the central tenets of evolutionary biology and neuroscience. The dichotomy between short term relationships, such as hookups, and long term committed partnerships remains a key focus within relationship studies. A nuanced critique requires moving beyond moral binaries to understand cultural structures and neurobiology. From a neuroscientific perspective, hookup culture aligns with dopamine-driven novelty seeking and testosterone-driven sexual conquest. 

Human intimacy, whether through romantic love or casual hookups, is fundamentally rooted in complex neurobiological processes. These processes involve brain structures, neurochemical signaling pathways and electrical activity that explain feelings of desire, attachment, reward and emotional regulation. 

At the core of human attraction lies the brain’s reward system, governed primarily by dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with pleasure, motivation and reinforcement. When individuals encounter a potential partner or sexual cue (visual, tactile or emotional signals), dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) release dopamine into the nucleus accumbens (NAc), generating feelings of excitement and desire. This mesolimbic dopamine pathway forms the foundation of sexual motivation and the pursuit of romantic pleasure (Fisher, Aron, & Brown, 2006).

This same neural circuitry explains why novelty feels inherently rewarding (Zhang et al., 2024). Dopamine activity increases with new experiences and gradually declines with familiarity, encouraging exploration and variety. In this sense, hookup culture resonates strongly with dopamine-driven behavior, prioritising novelty, excitement and immediate gratification over stability. Short-term encounters provide a transient “dopamine high,” reinforcing a cycle of desire and pursuit without necessarily fostering emotional attachment (Fisher, 2004).

In contrast to desire’s link with dopamine, long-term relational bonding relies critically on the neuropeptides oxytocin and vasopressin. Oxytocin, colloquially termed the “love hormone,” is released during physical intimacy, sexual activity, parturition and social bonding moments. It acts on brain regions such as the amygdala and ventral striatum, facilitating trust, attachment and social recognition (Carter, 1998; Hammock & Young, 2006). Vasopressin plays a dominant role in male pair-bonding and territorial behaviors relevant to monogamous relationships (Young & Wang, 2004). The synergistic effects of these neurochemicals help transition early romantic excitement into stable, trust-based partnerships, illustrating the neurobiological evolution from desire to enduring love (Acevedo et al., 2012).

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have provided valuable insight into how love manifests in the brain. When individuals view images of their romantic partners, researchers observe heightened activity in areas associated with reward, motivation and habit formation, notably the ventral pallidum, caudate nucleus and ventral striatum (Bartels & Zeki, 2000, Aron et al., 2005). These activations overlap significantly with circuits stimulated by addictive substances, suggesting that romantic love shares neurobiological features with addiction (Acevedo et al., 2012). 

Over time, as relationships mature, other brain regions, including the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex, play greater roles. These areas are responsible for emotional regulation, empathy and conflict resolution, enabling couples to maintain stability and intimacy even when novelty fades. Long-term attachment thus engages both the ancient reward systems that promote bonding and the higher-order cognitive areas that sustain cooperation and emotional understanding (Martin & Ochsner, 2016).

In contrast, casual sexual encounters recruit brain circuits associated more with novelty-seeking and risk-taking than with emotional bonding. The amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex, both parts of the limbic system, are activated during such experiences, producing sensations of excitement and adventure (Fisher, Aron, & Brown, 2006; Rolls, 2004). These areas heighten impulsivity and short-term pleasure but do not strongly engage the attachment-related oxytocin and vasopressin systems (Young & Wang, 2004; Rigney et al., 2022). 

Repeated exposure to new partners or novel sexual stimuli reinforces dopamine-driven reward loops, a form of neural conditioning that strengthens the desire for variety. Over time, this can cultivate a preference for immediate gratification over emotional intimacy (Zhang et al., 2024; Fisher, 2004). Such reinforcement is a direct outcome of neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to rewire itself based on repeated behaviors. This neurobiological mechanism helps explain why casual encounters can be intensely pleasurable yet emotionally unfulfilling and why sustained relationships require more than physical attraction to endure (Acevedo et al., 2012).

The difference between fleeting attraction and lasting connection also lies in how the brain manages emotion and self-control. The medial prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex are deeply involved in empathy, perspective-taking and social judgment (Martin & Ochsner, 2016). These structures help individuals interpret a partner’s emotions, resolve conflicts and maintain trust. In long-term relationships, they act as regulators, dampening impulsive responses that might threaten stability.

During hookups or short-term flings, these regions may be less active, as interactions are guided primarily by reward and sensory pleasure rather than long-term emotional investment (Fisher, Aron, & Brown, 2006; Rolls, 2004). However, emotional vulnerability, the feeling of being seen or exposed, can still activate these circuits, indicating that even casual relationships involve neural systems of attachment and emotional regulation, though often in more transient forms.

Hormonal influences further shape sexual and emotional behavior. Testosterone enhances libido and promotes novelty-seeking tendencies (Eisenegger et al., 2011), whereas cortisol, the stress hormone, can suppress both desire and bonding. Serotonin and dopamine together regulate mood and arousal (Young & Wang, 2004), while fluctuations in oxytocin during intimacy strengthen trust and attachment (Carter, 1998; Hammock & Young, 2006). These interactions illustrate that love, lust and attachment are not distinct emotional states, but interconnected biological processes dynamically regulated by hormones and experience.

The human brain is remarkably adaptable. Sustained romantic relationships strengthen the neural circuits involved in attachment, empathy and emotional regulation. Conversely, betrayal, loss, or repeated short-term encounters can weaken or reconfigure these connections, sometimes leading to attachment insecurity or emotional numbness. Neuroplasticity ensures that love and desire are never static but evolve with experience, environment and emotional history (Acevedo et al., 2012).

This adaptability underscores a crucial insight: human intimacy is not purely instinctual, nor is it purely cultural. It is the result of continuous interaction between biology and environment, between neural circuitry and lived experience. Neuroscience reveals romantic love and hookup culture emerge from ancient, evolutionarily conserved brain systems. Yet, modern social and economic contexts shape how these systems are expressed. Digital dating, instant gratification and capitalist notions of choice and consumption amplify dopamine-driven tendencies toward novelty, often at the expense of long-term bonding. Understanding the neurobiology of love and desire thus bridges the gap between culture and cognition.

Solutions for fostering healthier intimacy lie in integrating neuroscientific knowledge with psychological support, social education and cultural critique. Promoting emotional literacy and communication skills can help individuals navigate vulnerability and emotional regulation, which are key to sustaining meaningful connections. Encouraging awareness about neurobiological responses, such as reward-seeking behaviors, can empower people to make reflective relationship choices rather than impulsive ones.

At a societal level, redesigning digital platforms to encourage deeper interactions (rather than mere novelty-based swiping) and fostering contexts that support trust-building, empathy and sustained engagement could mitigate the alienating effects of commodified intimacy. Finally, addressing structural inequalities and social pressures that disproportionately impact marginalised groups is essential for equitable access to safe, fulfilling relationships. By aligning biological understanding with psychosocial frameworks and cultural sensitivity, it is possible to cultivate environments where authentic intimacy thrives, balancing the brain’s natural drives with the complexities of human emotion and society. This integrative approach offers hope for individuals and communities to nurture connections that are both biologically attuned and emotionally satisfying, ultimately enriching the human experience of love and desire.

About the author:

Sharvani is a bioinformatics graduate and neuroscience enthusiast passionate about understanding behavior, emotion, and connection. She enjoys exploring how science and technology influence modern relationships. In her free time, she loves watching films and reading. Connect with her on LinkedIn